Women’s Movement in India

Women’s movements are organized efforts made by women’s associations to bring about equality and freedom for women.

Those movements which are guided by an ideology of fighting the sexual division of labor and patriarchy and which act against specific issues of oppression against women in an uncompromising way are Women’s movements.

Gail Omvedt gives four kinds of movements related to women which can be called as women’s movement and also distinguishes between them.

1) Movements where women participate- In these movements, men and women together fight some form of oppression. But the oppression due to sexual differentiation is not the focus of these movements. So Omvedt does not call such type of movements as women’s movements.

2) Movements of women- There may be movements on general issues (slum improvement, price rise etc.) where women are the only participants. But sole participation of women itself does not make them women’s movements. In fact such movements may confirm the gender division of labor- where men fight for wage rise and women fight against price rise, without challenging the male-dominated family and social structure.

According to Omvedt, these movements play a progressive role as they give women participants a chance to experience their own collective strength.

3) Women’s reform movements- Example of these movements can be the series of movements on education for women, for abolition of Sati etc. that took place in the pre-independence India. Although these issues were concerned with women, Omvedt refuses to call them women’s movements because these movements did not challenge the fundamental structure of oppression in family and society.

4) Women’s liberation movements- These are guided by an ideology of fighting the sexual division of labour and patriarchy. They also act against the specific issue of women’s oppression and move in the direction of liberation. These movements, according to Omvedt, can be called as women’s movements.

Women’s movements do not see women’s issues as subordinate to the social goals, but keep them in focus in relation to other social goals.

As Agnes (1994) puts it, the women’s movement in India does not stand in isolation and it is an integral part of other social movements. Keeping this in mind, the women’s movement in India can be discussed in terms of its two phases- one, the social reform phase; and the other, freedom movement phase.

·         The social reform movement phase-

There are claims that social status of women was better and satisfactory in ancient times, especially during Vedic period. Opposition to the traditions and practices oppressive to women seems to be traced in the 19^th century.

Female infanticide was practiced due to son preference. Children, especially girls were married off at a very young age. Practices like Sati, enforced widowhood, Devdasi system, Dowry system also were oppressive to women.

The social reform movement began as a reaction to this background in order to bring about small changes (reforms) within the existing social structure.

As Ghanashyam Shah notices, social reforms among the Hindu fold are focused while discussing the origin of women’s movement in India. Those among Muslims, Christians, Parsis have not received attention from social scientists.

People like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Behramji Malbari etc. raised voice against religious and social practices that subjugated women. They influenced British Government to create laws against Sati, child marriage, for widow remarriages and to spread education among girls etc.

Shah states that most of these reformers were Indian educated scholars influenced by Western ideas of liberalism.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Bengal founded Brahmo Samaj in 1828. The samaj opposed the caste system and other social discriminations.  It also focused on improving women’s condition. Because of the efforts by Brahmo Samaj, Sati was illegalized and declared as a punishable offense in 1829.

Roy also supported female education, widow remarriages and inter-caste marriages.

Prarthana Samaj was established in 1867 by Maharashtra Brahmins like Ranade, Bhandarkar, and so on. The ideas were similar to those of Brahmo Samaj. The samaj sponsored education for women.

Arya Samaj was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. It emphasized on compulsory education for both girls and boys. A series of schools for girls were started.

Efforts were made by reformers like Maharshi Karve (Poona), Pandita Ramabai (Bombay), Subbulakshmi (Madras) for education and betterment of widows. Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule’s contribution to women’s education in Maharashtra is very significant.

Fight for property rights for Hindu women was another important aspect of the social reform movement. Special Marriage Act of 1872 was passed with provision for divorce and succession to property to women.

Married women’s property act of 1874 expanded the right to own and acquire property by women.

Swami Vivekananda, Dayanand Saraswati, Annie Besant were the reformers of the revivalist group who also worked for the cause of Indian women. They believed in the revival of the Vedic society in modern India.

Annie Besant was the leader of the theosophical movement worked against child marriage and supported remarriage of child widows and focused on female education.

Several organizations were formed for fighting women’s issues.

Women’s India Association (WIA) was formed in 1917 by Annie Besant demanding the vote and representation of women. It also worked for women’s education and supported Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1931 and for abolition of Devdasi system. WIA became the parent of the All India Women’s Conference born in 1927 established by Margaret Cousins. AIWC conducted anti-Purdah agitations promoting women’s exposure in public sphere. National Council of Women in India (NCWI) was established in 1925 by lady Aberdeen, which focused on removal of legal, economic and social disabilities of women.

The social reform movement has invited range of criticisms, being called as elitist in character, for not being able to reach masses. The reformers included a limited section of educated, urban Indians. Women outside the middle class were not benefitted by the movement. The social reform movement was largely elitist and male-dominated in its leadership and goals. There was absence of radical thought and it only envisaged partial change.

·         The Freedom movement phase-

Social reforms in 19^th century led to the expansion of women’s education. As a result, a section of English educated middle class women made their presence felt in political activities by the late 19^th century.

This marked the shift of women’s movement from its social reform phase to Nationalist and freedom movement phase.

Till 1919, the national movement was limited to the urban middle class. Later, with Gandhiji’s entrance into the movement, participation of masses began to take place. In Swadeshi movement works of khadi spinning etc. were taken up by women. Swadeshi period marked the formation of several women’s organizations.

Even though Gandhi’s view of women’s welfare is widely criticized for projecting a concept of women’s role as complementary to that of men and embodying virtues of sacrifice and suffering, his style of mass mobilization made mobilization of women on a large number possible.

Also during the Satyagraha of 1919, women took out processions, propagated use of khadi and even courted jail.

The Quit India movement was launched in 1942, during which men leaders were arrested. Women carried on the movement in their absence. They not only took processions, demonstrations; but also organized camps in which they were given training in civil duties, first aid, and were educated on democracy, Indian Constitution, etc.

In the Indian National Army of Subhash Chandra Bose, Rani Jhansi Regiment of women was created. Women were trained in nursing, social service and also to use rifles, revolvers, machine guns, swords and daggers.

What was special of this phase was that several specific women’s organizations were established and also led by women themselves. They had a comprehensive programme of social, economic, cultural and political advancement of Indian women.

Govind Kelkar (1984) criticizes the assumption that freedom struggle brought about equality between men and women. He states that women were mobilized in freedom struggle because they were suited to carry out a non-violent struggle. Women’s role in freedom movement was that of helpers rather than of comrades.

Leaders like Gandhi, Subhash Chandra Bose encouraged women’s participation in freedom struggle; but without harming their social status of housewives.

The women’s movement in the pre-independence India provided a strong base for the women’s movement in the later period.

Post-Independence Period                                                                      

Woman’s movement after Independence, according to some scholars is known as The Third Phase. It starts from 1947 to1985. It has the influence if the Third Wave Feminism third phase is divided into to, pre emergency and post emergency periods after 1985 it is known as contemporary women’s movement. There is lull especially on the influence while framing the constitution of India. It includes the important aspect of equality of men and women, in all spheres of life. Article 14^th of the constitution of India states complete equality. In the activities of feminist and women’s movement in India , woman , however started to realize that “constitutional promise of equality” did not by itself  resolve the equality . Especially in a country as diverse as Ind , which comprises different religions and cultures. The challenge of addressing inequality within women remains till this day. The women’s movement has not been able to decommunalise the issue. Women’s organization and feminist did not know how to deal with the problems of women belonging to different religious group. By this time the women’s movement stepped into the 1970. Having been a secular movement the women’s movement found itself facing a different difficult challenging that it did not know how to handle.

                                   On the conceptual level Indian women were in dilemma like how to assimilate Muslim women’s issues in to broader feminist issues and at the same time religion as safeguard for cultural identity. This has been most obvious in the case of SHABANU, but Shabanu case paved a new path towards women’s movement’s limitations. Getting laws favoring on concerning women like Muslim Personal Law. The 1970s also witnessed the split of the Indian Left Frond. This led to a number of doubts regarding their earlier analysis of revolution. A few stream of feminist movement also developed such as Shahada movement against the exploitation of the tribal landless laborers by nontribal land  owners , it began as a folk protest and became militant with the movement of the new left party. The formation of the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) was probably the first attempt made to form a Trade union attached to the Textual Laborers Union in Ahmedabad. It was formed at the initiative of  Ela Bhatt ad was an organization of women who were involved in different traders but shared a number common features like work experience , low earning , extremely poor conditions and harassment from those authority ,lack of recognition of their efforts as socially use full work. SEWA aimed at improving the working conditions of women through a process of training, technical aid , legal literacy , collective bargaining and teach value of honesty and dignity.

                                            Anti-Price Agitation movement was another important movement as far as women’s movement is concerned. It was in Maharashtra and it was because of the direct result of drought and famine conditions that effected Maharashtra in the early 1970s. This led to sharp price rise in urban Maharashtra in 1973. The United Women’s Anti Price Front was formed to mobilize women against inflation, with in low time, its fire baled into a mass women’s movement for consumer protection and the demand was for the government to fix a minimum price and distributes essentially commodities. Huge group of women between 10000 to 20000 hold demonstration at government office. Houses of members of parliament and merchants and those who could not get out of their homes would express their support by donations and mental support. This movement spread to Gujarat where it was known as and called as Nav Nirman Movement. First of all this movement has started as students movement against spiraling costs , corruptions and black marketing , soon it became as women’s movement because of the high participations of women. The methods for movement were included mock courts where judgments were passed on against corrupt state officials and politicians. Mock funeral processions to greet the dawn of new era.

                                                 The Chipko Movement: which focuses world attentions on the environmental problems of the Akaanada, catchment area in the mid- Himalayas. It was a movement of local people especially women to inform forest contractors plainly and simply why Trees should not be cut. Today the Chipko movement is not confined to tree protection or plantation but concern itself with the safety and preservations of the environmental. The negative effects of gender inequality and environment. Degradations are challenged by women’s group and environmental group. According to Vandana Shiva women’s environmental actions in India preceded the UN Women’s Decade (1975-85) as well as Stockholm environmental conference. In Chipko Movement 300 members of BISHNOI community led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives to save their KHEJRI trees by climbing them. Chipko Movement is popularly referred as women’s movement. It directly relate to Eco Feminism , chipko which means to embrace started in Tehri Grwal district of U P. Women had tied their sacred tread around the trees , it faced by police firing in February 1978. This movement continued under the leadership of Sri Sundarlal Bahuguna. Its slogan is planting five F, Food , Fodder , Fuel, Fiber, Fertilizer. Another slogan was Jungal is parentsl home. Chipko movement has brought to India an important contribution that it paved the way to Eco Feminism

                                         The Telangana Movement:

      This movement had the link between pre and post-independence from 1946 to 1951 , usually it was considered as post-independence movement mainly because of its implication in after 1947. The participation of women in this movement was the mail link for the victory of Telangana movement especially from peasant women and middle clas women also. It was one of the semi violent movement, hundreds of peasant women stood together in Pennukonda city and chased police van in a city named Appajjpet women attacked the police van with pestles and chilly power and released their activists 

                             Srikakulam Movement : It was the first movement , an armed struggle led by the Marxist- Leninist- Communist party of India sarted in a district of AP. It was the struggle of Girijans for justice and for fair play. This movement brought guerrilla bands. Women under the leadership of Panchadri- Nirmala participated in guerrilla bands. Bommaraddi Snehalatha was another memorable woman who contributed with her large amount of women follower, her revolt against landlords and government shows the empowerment of women in India

                              One of the important mail stone for the emancipation of women empowerment is mainly because of the U N consideration against maltreatments of women, UNO declared international women’s decade (1975-1985) , this declaration gave women a new trend in their outlook , Indian women were influenced by this declaration and changed their perspective in movement. One of the important movements was Anti Rape movement: This movement happened when a new conceptualization of rape arose out of second wave Feminism. Rape was discussed as an issue of civil liberty. Anti-Rape Movement was popularized when some organization took the issue as primary concern to work out those organizations are Mahila Dakshita Samiti (MDS) , Stree Sangarsha Samiti (SSS) , Socialist Women’s Group, Feminist Network Collective (FNC) ,Purogami Sangatana , Stree Sakti Sangatana , Pennurumi Iyyakum,  and some AUTONOMEOUS Women’s Organizations they  fought and conducted mass rally regarding some horrific rapes cases

                                                 Some of the important rape cases that lead to mass rallies are the gang rape by police on a beggar woman called Lakshmi in Punjab, The cases of Rameezabee and Shakeelabee in Hyderabad raised public furry. Democratic rights organizations and journals also brought into light the cases of gang rape in Pathnagar, Rajahar , Agra , Bhojpur. It was in this time the famous Matura rape case came to light, Mathura was a 14 year old girl was summoned to the police station late in the night at Chandrapur near Nagpur in Maharashtra, two police constable raped her and session court of Nagpur alleged Mathura as “Loose of Morals” and declared police as innocent. The High Court convicted the rapists and lashed to seven and half year imprisonment. This gave birth to nationwide anti-rape protest. From every corner of the country, women’s group demand for law amendments. One of the important organization named Freedom Without Fear Platform (FWFP)  fought and the laws amend mended and came new Anti-Rape Law.

                                     Another important women’s movement was Anti Arrack Movement: it was one of the historic and most significant movement in the decade of 1990 by women. The women’s movement against social evil, the movement was started in a small village called Dubagunta in Nellore district. The main reason for this movement was the successful literary mission of Nellore district. In Dubagunta village Rossamma was the leader who gave slogan Give up Drink and Wake up from Ignorance. They stopped Arracks (local liquor) from making it. Anti-arrack community with 24 members blocked the roads conducted darnas. Renuka Chowdary as the chairperson of Anti arrack community played a pivotal role in this movement. In 1^st October 1993 arrack was prohibited because of the movement and 1^st January 1995 selling liquor became offensive

                                       Anti-Dowry Movement:  Which, emerged around 1979 continuing through till 1984. It was largely urban based yet.  Nationwide in scope not just in rhetoric but also in the active participation of woman across classes in the country. In 1974 the committee on the status of women in India (CSWI) and later the parliamentary joint select committee found two things that one is female child election or identification and second is prevailing dowry. Dowry has spread to all castes, communities, religions, and regions. With dowry has been carried the caste gender ideology. Dowry has to come to encompass the entire character of gift exchange between the two group. By 1982 women’s organization were insisting that majority of young bride death is duo to the reason of dowry or suicide is because of the insisting dowry problems. Some organization like Mahila Daksataha Samiti, National federation of Indian Women, All India Democratic Women’s Association, NARI RAKSHA SAMITI, hane come to oppose the system by possessing the notorious murder of Sudha Goul, in 1983 high court sentenced husband death penalty and mother in law, brother in law as life imprisonment. In 1984 government amend mended the dowry bill and further implementation was in 1985 October.

                                           One of the major important movements was Dalit Women’s Movement: the Dalit of Maharashtra launched the Dalit Panthar movement in the early 1970s. Panthar discards the dominant culture and identity for the oppressed classes especially for women. The weapon for this movement was mainly from intellectual side by literature. Dalit fought against devadasi system, another incident was from Kerala under the leadership of C K Janu she fought for the justice of Wayanad adivasi people. There are some other Dalit women’s movement like Anti Untouchable movement. Harijan  movement. Dalit Lebaration movement. Dalit women participated in these Movements. There are some associations that stand for the justice of Dalit women which are Rural Community Development Association, Rural Harijan Agricultural Development Society, and association of Poor.

                                          There are lots of NGOs and Organizations that took birth and give birth to women’s movement in India, some of them are

Ø  Joint Women’s programme

Ø  National Council of Women in India

Ø  Committee on the Portrayal of Women in Media

Ø  National Commission of Women

Ø  National federation if Indian Women

Ø  Diverse Women for Diversity

Ø  Kali for Women

Ø  Sahile

Ø  SEWA

Ø  Single women’s Organization

Ø  Maitreye

Ø  Nav Jargon Women’s Association

Ø  Madras women’s association 

Ø  Women’s Indian Association

Ø  AP Mahila Samakaya 

                           Women’s movement in India especially after post-Independence formed a new kind of challenging movement of social evils and problems. And fought for the social equality. When women organize or participate in any movement in India it would not come under the feminist label rather it stands as only women’s movement but outside India it usually comes under the label of feminist movement.

References

·        Rao. M.S.A , 1979, “SOCIAL MOVEMENTS in INDIA”, Published by Manohar, Answari Road , Daryagnaj, New delhi 

·        SUGUNA. B , 2009. “WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IN INDIA”, Published by Discovery Publishing House , New Delhi.India

·        Pooja Mondal “ WOMEN’S  MOVEMENT After Independence”essay

·        Agnihotri, Indu. And Mazumdar, Vina . “ Changing  Terms of Political Discourse: Women’s Movement in India 1970S and 1990s ”. Economic and Political Weekly,vol-30, no-29, pp 1869-1990.

·        Oomman, T.K, (2011) “ Social Movements 2^nd  ,Issues of Identity” published by Oxford university

·        Kalpagam, U. (2000) , The Women’s  Movement in India , Today , New agenda and old problems , published by Feminist Studies , vol 26, no 3 , pp 645- 660

·        Subramanum , Mangala. “ The Indian Women’s Movement”. Published by American Sociological Association , vol, 33, no 26, pp 635-639