INTELLECTUAL FORCES AND THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

Although social factors are important, the primary focus of this chapter is the intellectual forces that played a central role in shaping sociological theory. In real world, of course, intellectual factors cannot be separated from social factors. The many intellectual forces that shaped the development of social theories are discussed within the national context where their influence was primarily felt, we begin with the enlightenment and its influences on the development of sociological theory in France.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

In the view of many observers that the enlightenment constitutes a critical development in terms of the later revolution of sociology. The enlightenment was a period of remarkable intellectual development  and change in philosophical thought. A member of long standing ideas and beliefs many of which related to social life were overthrown and replaced during the enlightenment. The most prominent thinkers associated with the enlightenment were the French philosophers Charles Montesquieu and Jean Jacques Rousseau. The influence of the enlightenment on sociological theory, however, was more indirect and negative than it was direct and positive. As Irving Zeitlin put it, "Early sociology developed as a reaction to the Enlightenment".The thinkers associated with the Enlightenment were influenced, above all, by two intellectual currents- seventeenth century philosophy and science. Overall, the enlightenment was characterized by the belief that people could comprehend and control the universe by means of reason and empirical research (field research). The theorists who were most directly and positively influenced by enlightenment thinking were Alexis De Tocqueville and Karl Marx, although the latter formed his early theoretical ideas in Germany.

THE CONSERVATIVE REACTION TO THE ENLIGHTENMENT

The most extreme form of opposition to enlightenment ideas was French Catholic Counterrevolutionary philosophy, as represented by the ideas of Louis De Bonald, Josepho De Maistre. Louis De Bonald was disturbed by the revolutionary change  and yearned for a return to the peace and harmony of the middle ages. In this view, God was the source of society, therefore reason, which was so important to the enlightenment philosophers, was seen as inferior to traditional religious beliefs, furthermore, it was believed that because God had created society, people should not temper with it and should not try to change a holy creation. 

Bonald opposed anything that undermined such traditional institutions as patriarchy, the monogamous family the monarchy and the catholic church. He represented a rather extreme form of the conservative reaction, his work constitute a useful introduction to its general premises. The conservatives turned away from what they considered the "naive" rationalism of the enlightenment. They not only recognized the irrational aspects of social life but also assigned them positive value.

Zeitlin outlined ten propositions that he sees as emerging from the conservative reaction and providing the basis for the development of classical French sociological theory. 

1. Emphasis on individual (enlightenment thinkers)
2. Society is the most important unit of analysis
3. Individual was not even considered as the most basic element within society
4. The part of society are seen as interrelated and interdependent.
5. Change was seen as a threat to the society
6. To the see large-scale components of society as useful to society and the individual.
7. Small units such as the family, religious, neighborhood as essential to the society and the individual.
8. To see various modern social changes- industrialization, urbanization, and bureaucratization -disorganizing effects.
9. Social changes were leading to rational society- conservative reaction leads to non rational factors (ritual, ceremony, worship) in social life.
10. Conservatives supported the existence of a hierarchical system in society.

The ten proposition, derived from the conservative reaction to enlightenment, should be seen as the immediate intellectual basis of the development of sociological theory in France.

SOCIAL FORCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

An intellectual fields are profoundly shaped by their social settings. This is particularly true of sociology, which not only is derived from that setting as its subject matter. It was the utmost significance in 19th and early 20th centuries in the development of sociology.

POLITICAL REVOLUTION (FRENCH REVOLUTION)  

The French revolution in 1789 which carried over through the 19th century was the most immediate factor in the rise of sociological theorizing. The impact of this revolutions on many society was enormous and many positive changes resulted. However, what attracted the attentions of many early theorists was not the positive consequences but the negative effects of such changes, These writers were particularly disturbed especially in France. They were united in a desire to restore order to society. Some extreme thinkers and sophisticated thinkers wanted to return to the peaceful and relatively orderly days of the middle ages and recognized that social change had made such a return impossible. Thus they sought instead to find new bases of order in societies that had been overturned by the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. This interest in the issue of social order was one of the major concerns of classical sociological theories especially Comte, Durkheim and Parsons.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE RISE OF CAPITALISM

The industrial revolution mainly happened in the nineteenth  centuries. The industrial revolution was not a single event but many interrelated developments that culminated in the transformation of the western world from a largely agricultural to an overwhelmingly industrial system. Due to industrial revolution large number of people left the farms and agricultural land and work for the industrial occupations offered in the burgeoning factories. The factories themselves were transformed by a long series  of technological improvements. Large economic bureaucracies arose to provide the many services needed by industry and emerging capitalist economic system. In this economy, the ideal was a free marketplace where the many products of an industrial system could be exchanged. within this system, a few profited greatly while the majority worked long hours for low wages. A reaction against the industrial system and capitalism in general followed and led to the labour movement as well as to various radical movements aimed at overthrowing the capitalist system. The industrial revolution, capitalism and reaction against them all involved an enormous upheaval in western society, as upheaval that affected sociologists greatly. Four major figures in the early history of sociological theory Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and George Simmel were preoccupied.

THE RISE OF SOCIALISM

One set of changes aimed at coping with the excesses of the industrial system and capitalism can be combined under the heading "Socialism". Although some sociologists favored socialism as a solution to industrial problems, most were personally and intellectually opposed to it. On one side, Karl Marx was an active supporter of the overthrown of the capitalist system and its replacement by a socialist system. Marx did not develop a theory of socialism but he spent a great deal of time criticizing various aspects of capitalist society. In addition, he engaged in a variety of political activities that he hoped would help bring about the rise of socialist societies. Max Weber and Emile Durkheim were opposed to socialism- although they recognized the problems within capitalist society, They sought social reform within capitalism rather than the social revolution argued for by Marx. They feared socialism more than they did capitalism. This fear played a greater role in shaping sociological theory than did Marx's support of the socialist alternative to capitalism.

FEMINISM

In one sense there has always been a feminist perspective, wherever women are subordinated and they have been subordinated almost always and everywhere- they seem to have recognized and protested that situation in some form. While precursors can be traced to the 1630's high points of feminist activity and writing occurred in the liberationist  movements of modern western history- a first flurry of productivity in the 1780's and 1790's with the debates surrounding the American and French revolutions- a far more organised, focused effort in the 1850's as part of the mobilization against for women's suffrage (rights to vote in election) and for industrial and civic reform legislation in the progressive Era in the united states. All of this had an impact on the development of sociology, in particular on the work of a number of women in or associated with the field. Feminist concerns filtered into sociology only on the margins, in the work of marginal male theorists or of the increasingly marginalized female theorists- The men who assumed centrality (Critical role position in middle) in the profession from Spencer, through Weber and Durkheim made basically conservative responses to the feminist arguments going on around them, making issues of gender on inconsequential topic to which they responded conventionally rather than critically in what they identified and publicly promoted as sociology. They responded in this way even as women were writing a significant body of sociological theory. The history of this gender politics in the profession, which is also part of the history of male response to feminist claims, is only now being written.

URBANIZATION

Partly as a result of the industrial revolution, large members of people in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were uprooted from their rural homes and moved to urban settings. This massive migration was caused, in large part, by the jobs, created by the industrial system in the urban areas. But it presented many difficulties for those people who had to adjust to urban life. In addition, the expansion of the cities produced a seemingly endless list of urban problems, over crowding, pollution, noise, traffic and so fourth. The nature of urban life and its early sociologists, especially Max Weber and George Simmel. In fact, the first major school of American sociology, the Chicago school, was in large part defined by its concern for the city and its interest in using Chicago as a laboratory in which to study urbanization and its problems. 

RELIGIOUS CHANGE

Social changes brought on by political revolution the industrial revolution and urbanization had a profound effect on religiosity, many early sociologists came from religious backgrounds and were actively and in some cases professionally involved in religion. They brought to sociology the objectives they wished to improve people's lives, sociology was transformed into a religion. For others, their sociological theories bore an unmistakable religious imprint. Durkheim wrote one of his major works on religion, morality played a key role not only in Durkheim's sociology but also in the work of Talcott Parsons. A large portion of Weber's work also was devoted to the religions of the world. Marx too, had an interest in religiosity, but his orientation was for more critical.

THE GROWTH OF SCIENCE

As sociological theory was being developed there was an increasing emphasis on science, not only in colleges and universities but in society as a whole. The technological products of science were permeating (spread though) every sector of life, and science was acquiring enormous prestige. Those associated with the most successful sciences (Physics, biology, chemistry) were accorded honored places in society. Sociologists (Comte, Durkheim, Spencer and Mead) from the beginning were preoccupied with science, and many wanted to model sociology after the successful physical and biological sciences. However, a debate soon developed between those who wholeheartedly accepted the scientific model and those who thought that distinctive characteristics of social life made a wholesale adoption of a scientific model difficult and unwise. The issue of the relationship between sociology and science is debated to this day, although even a glace at the major journals in the field, at least in the united states, indicates the predominance of those who favor sociology as a science.